Stern’s synthesis of models
In his analysis of the state of the art in the field of L2 acquisition, especially the development of theoretical foundations, Stern (1986) highlights the usefulness of the proposed models of L2 acquisition, in that they give a much needed overview of relevant factors and their interactions to be taken into consideration when interpreting L2 acquisition.
However, none of the models can be regarded as conclusive and capable of explaining all the phenomena involved in L2 learning.
Therefore, he proposed an ‘uncontroversial synthesis representing the consensus among different investigators on the main factors that play a role in language learning’ (Stern, 1986: 338).
As shown in Figure 2.3 (Stern, 1986: 338), the model (or rather a framework for examination of L2 learning) consists of five sets of variables: (1) social context, (2) learner characteristics, (3) learning conditions, (4) learning process and (5) learning outcomes. The question believed to be crucial is why certain learners are successful while others are not, i.e. what combination of factors contributes to their success or failure.
The fourth set of variables, the learning process (4), consists of overt strategies and techniques used by learners and covert mental operations.
10 In the model, these variables are determined by learner characteristics and learning conditions, and, indirectly, by social context.
They directly influence the learning outcomes. Learners are involved in the learning process in three ways: (1) intellectually/cognitively, (2) socially and (3) affectively. Strategies that (good) learners are likely to employ in this process can be categorised in the following groups (Stern,
1986: 411):
(a) active planning strategy, involving selecting goals, recognizing stages and developmental sequences, and active participation in the learning process;
(b) ‘academic’ (explicit) learning strategies, reflecting learners’ readiness to study and practice language rules and relationships; to notice, to analyse, and to develop the necessary techniques of practice and memorisation; to monitor their own performance and revise it in order to make progress towards a higher level of competence in the target language;
(c) social learning strategies, involving a number of strategies such as recognition of initial dependent status, seeking opportunities for communicative contact, and development of communication strategies for overcoming difficulties in communicating in the target language;
(d) affective strategies, which refer to learners’ management of emotional and motivational problems, and which include behaviours such as development of positive attitudes towards the self as language learner, towards the L2 culture and society, accumulation of energy needed for overcoming frustrations, and, finally, persisting in their efforts.
All learners do not use the four strategies in the same way for many reasons. It seems safe to assume, however, that failure to learn is caused by an inadequate use of what, in a particular learning situation, might be a crucial learning strategy. Unsuccessful learners are therefore those who do not use strategies adequately, those who are inconsistent in using them or those who have not developed any learning strategies at all.
However plausible this explanation appears, it should be treated with caution, i.e. confirmed or modified in light of new evidence from further research.
Being and Work 